This classification of articles embodies a taxonomy that should be helpful to the reader in grasping the scope of the material contained in this volume. Articles are classified under nine categories. Each Encyclopedia article appears at least once in this classification. Some titles appear more than once in order to avoid the clutter of cross-references. Most classification headings are themselves article titles, in which case the title is followed by the page on which it begins. Headings preceded by an asterisk (*), however, are not actual titles but rather were invented to provide coherence to the classification. (Note: Appendix VIII contains a list of all articles in previous editions which are not in this edition.)
1. *HARDWARE
2. COMPUTER SYSTEMS 425
3. *INFORMATION AND DATA
4. SOFTWARE 1599
5. *MATHEMATICS OF COMPUTING
6. *THEORY OF COMPUTATION
7. *METHODOLOGIES
8. *APPLICATIONS
9. *COMPUTING MILIEUX
*TYPES OF COMPUTERS
Analog Computer 53
Differential Analyzer 537
Digital Computer 539
Calculating Machines 187
Calculators, Electronic and Programmable 192
Front-End Processor 735
Mainframe 1068
Microprocessors and Microcomputers 1161
Embedded System 646
Systolic Array 1741
Minicomputer 1172
Portable Computers 1414
Supercomputers 1710
Workstation 1865
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE 304
Addressing 20
Byte Ordering 169
Capability-Based Addressing 194
Computers, Multiple Address 435
Input--Output Operations 874
Instruction Decoding 882
Instruction-Level Parallelism 883
Instruction Set 887
Memory Hierarchy 1144
Open Architecture 1288
Parallel Processing: Architectures 1352
Pipeline 1405
Program Counter 1453
Register 1515
General Register 745
Index Register 847
Register Allocation 1516
Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) 1510
Stored Program Concept 1691
von Neumann Machine 1841
COMPUTER CIRCUITRY 339
Adder 17
Bit Slicing 150
Integrated Circuitry 892
Logic Design 1014
Microcomputer Chip 1157
Motherboard 1193
Superconducting Devices 1723
DIGITAL COMPUTER 539
Access Time 8
Cycle Time 476
Interleaving 908
Microprogramming 1169
Synchronous/Asynchronous Operation 1735
Throughput 1777
*DIGITAL COMPUTER SUBSYSTEMS
Bus 165
Central Processing Unit (CPU) 199
Arithmetic-Logic Unit (ALU) 77
Interrupt 928
Interval Timer 933
Wait State 1845
Channel 200
Communication Control Unit 240
Firmware 713
Front End Processor 735
*Input--Output Principles and Terminology
Access Time 8
Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Converters 59
Buffer 160
Channel 200
Contention 447
Cycle Stealing 475
Cylinder 479
Driver 608
Interlock 909
Interrupt 928
Memory-Mapped I/O 1152
Multiplexing 1202
Paper Tape 1348
Port, I/O 1412
Port, Memory 1414
Punched Card 1487
Input--Output Control System (IOCS) 870
BIOS 149
Logical and Physical Names 1031
*Input--Output Devices
DSU/CSU 608
Interactive Input Devices 903
Mouse 1193
Modem 1181
Monitor, Display 1186
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) 1326
Printers 1422
Punched Card Machinery 1489
Terminals 1752
Memory: Auxiliary 1137
Block and Blocking Factor 150
Diskette 593
Hard Disk 767
Mass Storage 1084
Optical Storage 1336
Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks (RAID) 1512
Swapping 1726
Memory: Main 1130
Associative Memory 105
Cache Coherency 176
Cache Memory 180
Local Store 1014
Memory Protection 1152
Mutual Exclusion 1215
Read-Only Memory (ROM) 1503
Ultrasonic Memory 1811
Williams Tube Memory 1851
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION LANGUAGES 768
HARDWARE RELIABILITY 773
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) 476
Fault-Tolerant Computing 698
Hardware Verification 777
Model Checking 1177
Redundancy 1512
MAINTENANCE OF COMPUTERS 1068
MOLECULAR COMPUTING 1184
OPTICAL COMPUTING 1333
PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION 1385
QUANTUM COMPUTING 1493
*ACCESS-BASED SYSTEMS
Interactive System 907
Electronic Mail 637
Internet 915
Online Conversation 1284
Teleprocessing Systems 1747
Time Sharing 1778
Transaction Processing 1788
User Interface 1821
Window Environments 1854
World Wide Web (WWW) 1867
Mobile Computing 1175
Real-Time Systems 1504
*STRUCTURE-BASED SYSTEMS
Client--Server Computing 215
Cluster Computing 218
Dataflow 520
Distributed Systems 595
Cooperative Computing 460
Embedded System 646
Y2K Problem 1875
File Server 710
Front End Processor 735
Host System 790
Multiprocessing 1205
Networks, Computer 1228
Ethernet 680
Local Area Network (LAN) 1008
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) 1155
Network Architecture 1223
Parallel Processing:
Principles 1349
Concurrent Programming 439
Architectures 1352
Systolic Array 1741
Algorithms 1357
Languages 1362
CODES 223
Baudot Code 134
Character Codes 204
Error Correcting and Detecting Codes 674
Universal Product Code 1814
COLLATING SEQUENCE 233
CRYPTOGRAPHY, COMPUTERS IN 468
DATA COMMUNICATIONS:
Principles 481
Standards 488
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) 107
Bandwidth 131
Baud 133
Communication Control Unit 240
Communications and Computers 243
Conditioning 445
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) 476
DSU/CSU 608
Echoing 611
Ethernet 680
Fiber Optics 702
Gateway 744
Handshaking 766
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) 902
Modem 1181
Network Protocols 1224
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) 1288
Packet Switching 1345
Parity 1367
Polling 1412
Protocol 1486
TCP/IP 1745
DATA COMPRESSION 492
Image Compression 836
DATA MINING 496
DATA MODELS 499
DATA SECURITY 504
Authentication 111
Cryptography, Computers in 468
Digital Signature 581
Password 1374
Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) 1421
Privacy, Computers and 1427
Virus, Computer 1839
DATA STRUCTURES 507
Abstract Data Type 1
Encapsulation 648
Information Hiding 854
Package 1345
Class 212
Data Type 512
File 708
Directory 583
File Server 710
Login File 1034
Open and Close a File 1287
Graph Theory 755
List Processing 992
Pointer 1408
Queueing Theory 1496
Record 1506
Stack 1674
String Processing 1694
Tree 1792
Types, Theory of 1806
DATA WAREHOUSING 514
INFORMATION ACCESS 848
INFORMATION PROCESSING 856
INFORMATION RETRIEVAL 858
INFORMATION SYSTEMS 865
Geographic Information System (GIS) 748
Hospital Information System (HIS) 788
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY 868
INFORMATION THEORY 869
INTERNET 915
World Wide Web (WWW) 1867
MEMORY MANAGEMENT 1146
Virtual Memory 1832
Working Set 1864
Free Software Foundation (FSF) 732
Freeware and Shareware 733
Groupware 759
Software History 1613
* Programming and Programming Languages
APPLICATIONS PROGRAMMING 73
FUNCTIONAL PROGRAMMING 736
LOGIC PROGRAMMING 1017
MACHINE AND ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAMMING 1044
Assembler 96
Calling Sequence 193
Masking 1084
No-op 1241
Shifting 1572
OBJECT-ORIENTED PROGRAMMING (OOP) 1279
PROCEDURE-ORIENTED LANGUAGES:
PROGRAMMING 1444
Checkpoint 208
Concurrent Programming 439
Debugging 524
Bug 162
Diagnostic 535
Dump 609
Errors 677
Trace 1787
Exception Handling 682
Iteration 934
List Processing 992
Literate Programming 1000
Modular Programming 1183
Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) 1279
Parameter Passing 1365
Programming Support Environments 1485
Recursion 1507
Side Effect 1573
*PROGRAM ARCHITECTURE
Abstract Data Type 1
Argument 76
Block Structure 151
Constant 445
Control Structure 454
Encapsulation 648
Expression 689
Global and Local Variables 750
Identifier 835
Information Hiding 854
Loop Invariant 1038
Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) 1279
Object-Oriented Analysis and Design (OOAD) 1276
Operand 1289
Package 1345
Program 1452
Calling Sequence 193
Coroutine 465
Object Program 1284
Reentrant Program 1514
Source Program 1664
Subprogram 1708
Statement 1683
Declaration 527
Executable Statement 683
Guarded Command 761
Macro 1066
Types, Theory of 1806
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES 1470
Assembler 96
Compiler 251
Activation Record 10
Compile and Run Time 250
Cross Assemblers and Compilers 467
Partial Evaluation 1370
Preprocessor 1420
Coordination Languages 462
Dataflow: Languages 523
Extensible Language 691
Functional Programming 736
Intermediate Languages 910
Language Processors 955
List Processing: Languages 996
Garbage Collection 743
Lisp 991
Literate Programming 1000
Logic Programming: Languages 1024
Markup Languages 1080
Hypertext 799
Nonprocedural Languages 1244
Parallel Processing: Languages 1362
Problem-Oriented Languages 1433
PostScript 1417
Simula 1576
Procedure-Oriented Languages: Survey 1441
Ada 12
Algol 32
Algol 68 34
APL 67
Basic 131
C 171
C++ 174
Cobol 221
Forth 721
Fortran 724
Java 937
Logo 1035
Pascal 1372
Simula 1576
SETL 1569
Scripting Languages 1553
String Processing: Languages 1695
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE STANDARDS 1466
*PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE SYNTAX
Backus--Naur Form (BNF) 129
Metalanguage 1155
Vienna Definition Language (VDL) 1831
PROGRAMMING LINGUISTICS 1475
Binding 141
Coercion 227
Default Condition 531
Delimiter 531
Operator Overloading 1324
Operator Precedence 1325
Partial Evaluation 1370
Polish Notation 1409
Production 1451
Programming Language Semantics 1463
Vienna Definition Language 1831
Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics 1737
Software Engineering 1606
Automatic Programming 119
Chief Programmer Team 209
Compatibility 250
Emulation 647
Computer-Aided Software Engineering (CASE) 278
Documentation 602
Flowchart 714
Formal Methods for Computer Systems 720
Human Factors in Computing 791
User Interface 1821
Modular Programming 1183
Object-Oriented Analysis and Design (OOAD) 1276
Program Specification 1454
Program Verification 1458
Loop Invariant 1038
Software Configuration Management 1601
Software Design Patterns 1604
Software Engineering Institute (SEI) 1611
Software Libraries, Numerical and Statistical 1620
Mathematical Software 1093
Software Maintenance 1624
Software Metrics 1627
Software Monitor 1631
Software Portability 1633
Transparency 1791
Software Project Management 1634
Software Prototyping 1636
Software Reliability 1638
Software Reusability 1641
Component Software 260
Software Safety 1643
Software Testing 1645
Checkpoint 208
Debugging 524
Errors 677
Programming Support Environments 1485
Structured Programming 1701
* Systems Software
OPERATING SYSTEMS 1290
Operating Systems: General Principles 1290
Accounting System, Computer 9
Bootstrap 159
Directory 583
Job 941
Kernel 945
Login File 1034
Memory Protection 1152
Multiprogramming 1207
Multitasking 1210
Overhead 1341
Privileged Instruction 1430
Scheduling Algorithms 1535
Software Configuration Management 1601
Supervisor Call 1725
Thrashing 1776
Time Sharing 1778
Time Slice 1782
User Interface 1821
Virtual Memory 1832
Working Set 1864
Operating Systems: Contemporary Issues 1311
Client--Server Computing 215
Distributed Systems 595
File Server 710
Monitor, Synchronization 1191
Password 1374
Shell 1571
Unix Operating System 1816
SYSTEMS PROGRAMMING 1739
Access Methods 5
Bootstrap 159
Buffer 160
Compiler 251
Concurrent Programming 439
Driver 608
Garbage Collection 743
Interrupt 928
Microprogramming 1169
Emulation 647
Linkers and Loaders 988
Real-Time Systems 1504
Storage Allocation 1689
Swapping 1726
Trap 1791
COMPUTATIONAL GEOMETRY 265
DISCRETE MATHEMATICS 587
Arithmetic, Computer 81
Complement 258
Interval Arithmetic 931
Precision 1420
Significant Digit 1574
Boolean Algebra 154
Codes 223
Combinatorics 235
Cryptography, Computers in 468
Factoring Integers 693
Fractals 725
Fuzzy Logic 739
Graph Theory 755
Integer Sequences, Online Encyclopedia of 891
Mathematical Programming 1087
*Mathematical Statistics and Probability
Monte Carlo Method 1192
Probabilistic Algorithms 1430
Queueing Theory 1496
Random Number Generation 1499
Number Theoretic Calculations 1256
Numbers and Number Systems 1257
MATHEMATICS, COMPUTERS IN 1096
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS 1260
Approximation Theory 73
Chebyshev Approximation 208
Least-Squares Approximation 963
Error Analysis 669
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) 695
Finite Element Method 711
Matrix Computations 1103
Optimization Methods 1339
Partial Differential Equations 1367
Roundoff Error 1532
Spline 1668
PROBLEM-SOLVING ENVIRONMENTS 1440
Algorithmic Problem Solving 38
ALGORITHM 36
*Types and Specific Examples
Algorithms, Design and Classification of 45
Genetic Algorithms 747
Parallel Processing: Algorithms 1357
Probabilistic Algorithms 1430
Searching 1557
Sorting 1649
ALGORITHMICS 40
ALGORITHMS, ANALYSIS OF 42
Computational Complexity 260
Information-Based Complexity 850
NP-Complete Problems 1252
ALGORITHMS, THEORY OF 51
Undecidable Problems 1812
AUTOMATA THEORY 112
Cellular Automata 198
Probabilistic Automata 1432
Sequential Machine 1565
Switching Theory 1727
Turing Machine 1797
FORMAL LANGUAGES 716
Chomsky Hierarchy 210
Grammars 751
Production 1451
Regular Expression 1518
Well-Formed Formula (WFF) 1847
LAMBDA CALCULUS 953
LIMITS OF COMPUTATION 984
LOGICS OF PROGRAMS 1032
NONMONOTONIC LOGIC 1241
TYPES, THEORY OF 1806
PETRI NET 1402
RECURSION 1507
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) 89
Case-Based Reasoning 196
Cognitive Science 227
Expert Systems 684
Heuristic 781
Knowledge Representation 947
Machine Learning 1056
Multiagent Systems 1194
Natural Language Processing 1218
Machine Translation 1059
Neural Networks 1233
Perceptron 1383
Speech Recognition and Synthesis 1664
Theorem Proving 1773
Turing Test 1801
COMPUTER ALGEBRA:
Principles 282
Systems 287
COMPUTER GRAPHICS 368
Artificial Life 93
Computer Animation 301
Fractals 725
Geographic Information System (GIS) 748
Scientific Visualization 1550
Virtual Reality 1835
COMPUTER VISION 431
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS) 517
Data Models 499
Database Concurrency Control 516
Deductive Database 528
Relational Database 1519
IMAGE PROCESSING 840
Image Compression 836
Medical Imaging 1118
Tomography, Computerized 1783
INFORMATION RETRIEVAL 858
Hypertext 799
INFORMATION SYSTEMS 865
Videotex 1829
MATHEMATICAL SOFTWARE 1093
PATTERN RECOGNITION 1375
Perceptron 1383
ROBOTICS 1525
SEARCHING 1557
SIMULATION 1578
Emulation 647
SORTING 1649
VIRTUAL REALITY 1835
ADMINISTRATIVE APPLICATIONS 26
Electronic Commerce 628
Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) 635
Electronic Office 642
Management Information Systems (MIS) 1070
Personal Finance 1397
Spreadsheet 1670
Transaction Processing 1788
Y2K Problem 1875
*COMMUNICATIONS APPLICATIONS
Bulletin Board 162
Computer Conferencing 348
Electronic Mail (Email) 637
Groupware 759
Minitel 1174
Videotex 1829
COMPUTER-ASSISTED LEARNING AND TEACHING 328
Networks for Learning 1227
COMPUTER-AIDED ENGINEERING 274
Automated Planning 117
Automation 122
Computer-Aided Design/Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAD/CAM) 268
Control Applications 448
Digital Design Automation 570
Robotics 1525
Telerobotics 1748
DESKTOP PUBLISHING 532
Metafont 1153
PostScript 1417
TEX 1756
Typefont 1804
DIGITAL LIBRARIES 576
Online Information Systems 1285
Electronic Reference Works 645
Integer Sequences, Online Encyclopedia of 891
Library Standards 982
ENTERTAINMENT INDUSTRY, COMPUTERS IN THE 651
Computer Animation 301
Multimedia 1196
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS 748
HUMANITIES APPLICATIONS 795
Computer Animation 301
Computer Art 320
Computer Music 396
Electronic Reference Works 645
Machine Translation 1059
Museums, Computer 1211
INTERNET 915
Java 937
Legal Issues of the Internet 975
Markup Languages 1080
World Wide Web (WWW) 1867
JOURNALISM, COMPUTERS IN 941
LEGAL APPLICATIONS 964
Legal Protection of Software 978
MEDICAL APPLICATIONS 1111
Hospital Information System (HIS) 788
Medical Imaging 1118
Tomography, Computerized 1783
*RECREATIONAL APPLICATIONS
Computer Chess 336
Computer Games:
Arcade 360
History 357
Traditional 364
Videogames 1827
Entertainment Industry, Computers in the 651
Multimedia 1196
Stamps, Computing on 1675
Virtual Reality 1835
SCIENTIFIC APPLICATIONS 1538
Artificial Life 93
Biocomputing 143
Number Theoretic Calculations 1256
Factoring Integers 693
Scientific Visualization 1550
Statistical Applications 1685
SOCIAL SCIENCE APPLICATIONS 1587
Political Applications 1409
TEXT EDITING SYSTEMS 1759
Desktop Publishing 532
Spelling Checker 1667
Word Processing 1860
COMPUTER INDUSTRY:
Britain 388
Europe 391
Japan 393
United States 382
Apple Computer, Inc. 68
Control Data Corporation (CDC) 453
Digital Equipment Corporation 572
IBM Corporation 807
Microsoft 1170
Entrepreneurs 655
*COMPUTER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
*Basic Terminology and Jargon
Guru 762
Justification 944
Kludge 946
Machine-Readable Form 1059
Power User 1419
Wizard 1857
Cognitive Science 227
Computer Engineering 353
Computer Literacy 395
Computer Science 405
Computer Science---Ph.D. Statistics 419
Cybernetics 470
Cyberspace 474
Data Processing 502
Information Processing 856
Information Science 863
Information Technology 868
Information Theory 869
Symbol Manipulation 1731
COMPUTER SOCIETIES 420
Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) 103
British Computer Society (BCS) 159
Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility (CPSR) 404
Computing Research Association (CRA) 438
Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals (ICCP) 879
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers---
Computer Society (IEEE-CS) 881
International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) 913
User Groups 1819
*THE COMPUTING PROFESSION
Personnel in the Computer Field 1400
Programmer 1462
Hacker 763
Wizard 1857
Systems Analyst 1738
COOPERATIVE COMPUTING 460
DISABLED, COMPUTERS AND THE 585
EDUCATION IN COMPUTER SCIENCE:
Asia 625
Europe 624
United States 616
Computer Science---Ph.D. Statistics 419
Education in Computer Engineering 615
FICTION, COMPUTERS IN 704
*HISTORY
Analytical Engine 65
Calculating Machines 187
Charles Babbage Institute (CBI) 207
Computing Conferences 437
Difference Engine 535
Digital Computers, History of: Origins 545
Atanasoff--Berry Computer 108
Bell Labs Relay Computers 135
Colossus 233
Differential Analyzer 537
EDSAC 613
EDVAC 626
ENIAC 649
Hollerith Machine 784
Manchester University Computers 1077
Mark I, Harvard 1078
NORC 1249
SEAC 1557
SWAC 1725
UNIVAC I 1813
Whirlwind 1847
Zuse Computers 1876
Digital Computers, History of: Early 548
Atlas 110
IBM 1400 Series 826
LARC 958
LEO 981
Stretch 1693
Digital Computers, History of: Since 1950 552
Apple Computer, Inc. 68
Control Data Corporation (CDC) 453
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) 572
IBM Corporation 807
IBM 360/370/390 Series 828
IBM PC 832
Entrepreneurs 655
Generations, Computer 746
* Languages
Ada 12
Algol 32
APL 67
Basic 131
C 171
Cobol 221
Fortran 724
Lisp 991
Pascal 1372
Simula 1576
McDowell Award Winners 1110
Microsoft 1170
*People
Aiken, Howard 31
Atanasoff, John Vincent 109
Babbage, Charles 127
Boole, George 153
Burroughs, William S. 164
Bush, Vannevar 167
Church, Alonzo 211
Comrie, Leslie John 438
Cray, Seymour 466
Eckert, J. Presper 611
Eckert, Wallace J. 612
Hamming, Richard W. 765
Hartree, Douglas R. 780
Hollerith, Herman 785
Hopper, Grace Murray 786
Kilburn, Tom 946
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm 980
Lovelace, Countess of 1040
Mauchly, John W. 1109
Napier, John 1218
Nixdorf, Heinz 1239
Noyce, Robert Norton 1250
Pascal, Blaise 1373
Perlis, Alan J. 1390
Powers, James 1419
Shannon, Claude 1570
Simon, Herbert A. 1574
Stibitz, George Robert 1687
Strachey, Christopher 1693
Torres Quevedo, Leonardo 1786
Turing, Alan M. 1803
von Neumann, John 1842
Watson, Thomas J., Sr. 1846
Wiener, Norbert 1848
Wilkes, Sir Maurice V. 1849
Wilkinson, James H. 1850
Williams, Sir Frederic C. 1853
Zuse, Konrad 1877
Software History 1613
Turing Award Winners 1795
INTERNET 915
Legal Issues of the Internet 975
Online Conversation 1284
World Wide Web (WWW) 1867
LEGAL ASPECTS OF COMPUTING 969
Computer Crime 349
Computer Ethics 354
Virus, Computer 1839
Legal Issues of the Internet 975
Legal Protection of Software 978
Privacy, Computers and 1427
Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) 1421
LITERATURE OF COMPUTING 1002
*MANAGEMENT OF COMPUTING
Accounting System, Computer 9
Human Factors in Computing 791
*Performance of Computers
Benchmarks 137
Laws, Computer 960
Performance Measurement and Evaluation 1385
Software Monitor 1631
Throughput 1777
Software Project Management 1634
Standards 1677
Computer Graphics: Standards 378
Data Communications: Standards 488
Library Standards 982
Programming Language Standards 1466
Supercomputing Centers 1718
PERSONAL COMPUTING 1391
SOCIETY, COMPUTERS IN 1591
Automation 122
Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility (CPSR) 404
Computer Ethics 354
Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) 634
Free Software Foundation (FSF) 732
Freeware and Shareware 733
Information Access 848
Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) 1421
Y2K Problem 1875
WOMEN AND COMPUTING 1857